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| CHAPTER XXXV. |
| PLATONIC REPUBLIC — ABSTRACT. |
| Declared theme of the Republic — Expansion and multiplication of the topics connected with it | 1 |
| Personages of the dialogue | 2 |
| Views of Kephalus about old age | ib. |
| Definition of Justice by Simonides — It consists in rendering to every man what is owing to him | ib. |
| Objections to it by Sokrates — There are cases in which it is not right to restore what is owing, or to tell the truth | 3 |
| Explanation by Polemarchus — Farther interrogations by Sokrates — Justice renders what is proper and suitable: but how? in what cases, proper? Under what circumstances is Justice useful? | 4 |
| The just man, being good for keeping property guarded, must also be good for stealing property — Analogies cited | 5 |
| Justice consists in doing good to friends, evil to enemies — But how, if a man mistakes who his friends are, and makes friends of bad men? | 6 |
| Justice consists in doing good to your friend, if really a good man: hurt to your enemy, with the like proviso. Sokrates affirms that the just man will do no hurt to any one. Definition of Simonides rejected | ib. |
| Thrasymachus takes up the dialogue — Repulsive portrait drawn of him | 7 |
| Violence of Thrasymachus — Subdued manner of Sokrates — Conditions of useful colloquy | ib. |
| Definition given by Thrasymachus — Justice is that which is advantageous to the more powerful. Comments by Sokrates. What if the powerful man mistakes his own advantage? | 8 |
| Correction by Thrasymachus — if the Ruler mistakes, he is pro tanto no Ruler — The Ruler, quâ Ruler — quâ Craftsman — is infallible | 9 |
| Reply by Sokrates — The Ruler, quâ infallible Craftsman, studies the interest of those whom he governs, and not his own interest | ib. |
| Thrasymachus denies this — Justice is the good of another. The just many are worse off than the unjust One, and are forced to submit to his superior strength | 10 |
| Position laid for the subsequent debate and exposition | 11 |
| Arguments of Sokrates — Injustice is a source of weakness — Every multitude must observe justice among themselves, in order to avoid perpetual quarrels. The same about any single individual: if he is unjust, he will be at war with himself, and perpetually weak | ib. |
| Farther argument of Sokrates — The just man is happy, the unjust man miserable — Thrasymachus is confuted and silenced. Sokrates complains that he does not yet know what Justice is | ib. |
| Glaukon intimates that he is not satisfied with the proof, though he agrees in the opinion expressed by Sokrates. Tripartite distribution of Good — To which of the three heads does Justice belong? | 12 |
| Glaukon undertakes to set forth the case against Sokrates, though professing not to agree with it | ib. |
| Pleading of Glaukon. Justice is in the nature of a compromise for all — a medium between what is best and what is worst | 13 |
| Comparison of the happiness of the just man derived from his justice alone, when others are unjust to him with that of the unjust man under parallel circumstances | 14 |
| Pleading of Adeimantus on the same side. He cites advice given by fathers to their sons, recommending just behaviour by reason of its consequences | 15 |
| Nobody recommends Justice per se, but only by reason of its consequences | 16 |
| Adeimantus calls upon Sokrates to recommend and enforce Justice on its own grounds, and to explain how Justice in itself benefits the mind of the just man | 17 |
| Relation of Glaukon and Adeimantus to Thrasymachus | 18 |
| Statement of the question as it stands after the speeches of Glaukon and Adeimantus. What Sokrates undertakes to prove | ib. |
| Position to be proved by Sokrates — Justice makes the just man happy per se, whatever be its results | 20 |
| Argument of Sokrates to show what Justice is — Assumed analogy between the city and the individual | ib. |
| Fundamental principle, to which communities of mankind owe their origin — Reciprocity of want and service between individuals — No individual can suffice to himself | ib. |
| Moderate equipment of a sound and healthy city — Few wants | 22 |
| Enlargement of the city — Multiplied wants and services. First origin of war and strife with neighbours — It arises out of these multiplied wants | ib. |
| Separate class of soldiers or Guardians. One man cannot do well more than one business. Character required in the Guardians — Mildness at home with pugnacity against enemies | 23 |
| Peculiar education necessary, musical as well as gymnastical | 23 |
| Musical education, by fictions as well as by truth. Fictions addressed to the young: the religious legends now circulating are often pernicious: censorship necessary | 24 |
| Orthodox type to be laid down: all poets are required to conform their legends to it. The Gods are causes of nothing but good: therefore they are causes of few things. Great preponderance of actual evil | ib. |
| The Guardians must not fear death. No terrible descriptions of Hades must be presented to them: no intense sorrow, nor violent nor sensual passion, must be re counted either of Gods or Heroes | 25 |
| Type for all narratives respecting men | 26 |
| Style of narratives. The poet must not practise variety of imitation: he must not speak in the name of bad characters | ib. |
| Rhythm and Melody regulated. None but simple and grave music allowed: only the Dorian and Phrygian moods, with the lyre and harp | ib. |
| Effect of musical training of the mind — makes youth love the Beautiful and hate the Ugly | 27 |
| Training of the body — simple and sober. No refined medical art allowed. Wounds or temporary ailments treated; but sickly frames cannot be kept alive | 28 |
| Value of Gymnastic in imparting courage to the mind — Gymnastic and Music necessary to correct each other | 29 |
| Out of the Guardians a few of the very best must be chosen as Elders or Rulers — highly educated and severely tested | ib. |
| Fundamental creed required to be planted in the minds of all the citizens respecting their breed and relationship | 30 |
| How is such a fiction to be accredited in the first instance? Difficulty extreme, of first beginning; but if once accredited, it will easily transmit itself by tradition | 31 |
| Guardians to reside in barracks and mess together; to have no private property or home; to be maintained by contribution from the people | 32 |
| If the Guardians fail in these precautions, and acquire private interests, the city will be ruined | 32 |
| Complete unity of the city, every man performing his own special function | 33 |
| The maintenance of the city depends upon that of the habits, character, and education of the Guardians | 34 |
| Religious legislation — Consult the Delphian Apollo | ib. |
| The city is now constituted as a good city — that is, wise, courageous, temperate, just. Where is its Justice? | ib. |
| First, where is the wisdom of the city? It resides in the few elder Rulers | ib. |
| Where is the Courage? In the body of Guardians or Soldiers | 35 |
| Where is the Temperance? It resides in all and each, Rulers, Guardians, and People. Superiors rule and Inferiors obey | ib. |
| Where is the Justice? In all and each of them also. It consists in each performing his own special function, and not meddling with the function of the others | 36 |
| Injustice arises when any one part of the city interferes with the functions of the other part, or undertakes double functions | 37 |
| Analogy of the city to the individual — Each man is tripartite, having in his mind Reason, Energy, Appetite. These three elements are distinct, and often conflicting | ib. |
| Reason, Energy, Appetite, in the individual — analogous to Rulers, Guardians, Craftsmen in the city. Reason is to rule Appetite. Energy assists Reason in ruling it | 39 |
| A man is just when these different parts of his mind exercise their appropriate functions without hindrance | ib. |
| Justice and Injustice in the mind — what health and disease are in the body | 40 |
| Original question now resumed — Does Justice make a man happy, and Injustice make him miserable, apart from all consequences? Answer — Yes | ib. |
| Glaukon requires farther explanation about the condition of the Guardians, in regard to sexual and family ties | 41 |
| Men and women will live together and perform the duties of Guardians alike — They will receive the same gymnastic and musical training | 41 |
| Nature does not prescribe any distribution of functions between men and women. Women are inferior to men in every thing. The best women are equal to second-best men | 42 |
| Community of life and relations between the male and female Guardians. Temporary marriages arranged by contrivance of the Elders. No separate families | ib. |
| Regulations about age, for procreation — Children brought up under public authority | 44 |
| Perfect communion of sentiment and interest among the Guardians — Causes of pleasure and pain the same to all, like parts of the same organism | ib. |
| Harmony — absence of conflicting interest — assured scale of equal comfort — consequent happiness — among the Guardians | 45 |
| In case of war both sexes will go together to battle — Rewards to distinguished warriors | 46 |
| War against Hellenic enemies to be carried on mildly — Hellens are all by nature kinsmen | 47 |
| Question — How is the scheme practicable? It is difficult, yet practicable on one condition — That philosophy and political power should come into the same hands | ib. |
| Characteristic marks of the philosopher — He contemplates and knows Entia or unchangeable Forms, as distinguished from fluctuating particulars or Fientia | 48 |
| Ens alone can be known — Non-Ens is unknowable. That which is midway between Ens and Non-Ens (particulars) is matter only of opinion. Ordinary men attain nothing beyond opinion | 49 |
| Particulars fluctuate: they are sometimes just or beautiful, sometimes unjust or ugly. Forms or Entia alone remain constant | 50 |
| The many cannot discern or admit the reality of Forms — Their minds are always fluctuating among particulars | 51 |
| The philosopher will be ardent for all varieties of knowledge — His excellent moral attributes — He will be trained to capacity for active life | ib. |
| Adeimantus does not dispute the conclusion, but remarks that it is at variance with actual facts — Existing philosophers are either worthless pretenders, or when they are good, useless | 52 |
| Sokrates admits the fact to be so — His simile of the able steersman on shipboard, among a disobedient crew | 53 |
| The uselessness of the true philosopher is the fault of the citizen, who will not invoke his guidance | 54 |
| The great qualities required to form a philosopher, become sources of perversion, under a misguiding public opinion | ib. |
| Mistake of supposing that such perversion arises from the Sophists. Irresistible effect of the public opinion generally, in tempting or forcing a dissenter into orthodoxy | 55 |
| The Sophists and other private teachers accept the prevalent orthodoxy, and conform their teaching to it | 56 |
| The people generally hate philosophy — A youth who aspires to it will be hated by the people, and persecuted even by his own relatives | 57 |
| The really great minds are thus driven away from the path of philosophy — which is left to empty pretenders | 58 |
| Rare cases in which a highly qualified philosopher remains — Being at variance with public opinion, he can achieve nothing, and is lucky if he can obtain safety by silence | ib. |
| The philosopher must have a community suitable to him, and worthy of him | 59 |
| It must be such a community as Sokrates has been describing — But means must be taken to keep up a perpetual succession of philosophers as Rulers | 60 |
| Proper manner of teaching philosophy — Not to begin at a very early age | ib. |
| If the multitude could once see a real, perfect, philosopher, they could not fail to love him: but this never happens | 61 |
| Course of training in the Platonic city, for imparting philosophy to the Rulers. They must be taught to ascend to the Idea of Good. But what is Good? | ib. |
| Ancient disputes upon this point, though every one yearns after Good. Some say Intelligence; some say Pleasure. Neither is satisfactory | 62 |
| Adeimantus asks what Sokrates says. Sokrates says that he can not answer: but he compares it by a metaphor to the Sun | 63 |
| The Idea of Good rules the ideal or intelligible world, as the Sun rules the sensible or visible world | 64 |
| To the intelligible world there are applicable two distinct modes of procedure — the Geometrical — the Dialectic. Geometrical procedure assumes diagrams | 65 |
| Dialectic procedure assumes nothing. It departs from the highest Form, and steps gradually down to the lowest, without meddling with any thing except Forms | 66 |
| Two distinct grades of Cognition — Direct or Superior — Nous — Indirect or Inferior — Dianoia | ib. |
| Two distinct grades of Opinion also in the Sensible World — Faith or Belief — Conjecture | 67 |
| Distinction between the philosopher and the unphilosophical public, illustrated by the simile of the Cave, and the captives imprisoned therein | ib. |
| Daylight of philosophy contrasted with the firelight and shadows of the Cave | 69 |
| Purpose of a philosophical training, to turn a man round from facing the bad light of the Cave to face the daylight of philosophy, and to see the eternal Forms | ib. |
| Those who have emerged from the Cave into full daylight amidst eternal Forms, must be forced to come down again and undertake active duties — Their reluctance to do this | 70 |
| Studies serving as introduction to philosophy — Arithmetic, its awakening power — shock to the mind by felt contradiction | ib. |
| Perplexity arising from the One and Many, stimulates the mind to an intellectual effort for clearing it up | 72 |
| Geometry conducts the mind to wards Universal Ens | ib. |
| Astronomy — how useful — not useful as now taught — must be studied by ideal figures, not by observation | 73 |
| Acoustics, in like manner — The student will be thus conducted to the highest of all studies — Dialectic: and to the region of pure intelligible Forms | 74 |
| Question by Glaukon — What is the Dialectic Power? Sokrates declares that he cannot answer with certainty, and that Glaukon could not follow him if he did | 75 |
| He answers partially — It is the consummation of all the sciences, raising the student to the contemplation of pure Forms, and especially to that of the highest Form — Good | ib. |
| The Synoptic view peculiar to the Dialectician | 76 |
| Scale and duration of various studies for the Guardians, from youth upwards | ib. |
| All these studies, and this education, are common to females as well as males | 77 |
| First formation of the Platonic city — how brought about: difficult, but not impossible | 78 |
| The city thus formed will last long, but not for ever. After a certain time, it will begin to degenerate. Stages of its degeneracy | ib. |
| 1. Timocracy and the timocratical individual. 2 Oligarchy, and the oligarchical individual | 79 |
| 3. Democracy, and the democratical individual | 80 |
| 4. Passage from democracy to despotism. Character of the despotic city | 81 |
| Despotic individual corresponding to that city | 82 |
| The city has thus passed by four stages, from best to worse. Question — How are Happiness and Misery apportioned among them? | ib. |
| Misery of the despotised city | 83 |
| Supreme Misery of the despotising individual | ib. |
| Conclusion — The Model city and the individual corresponding to it, are the happiest of all — That which is farthest removed from it, is the most miserable of all | 84 |
| The Just Man is happy in and through his Justice, however he may be treated by others. The Unjust Man, miserable | 84 |
| Other arguments proving the same conclusion — Pleasures of Intelligence are the best of all pleasures | ib. |
| They are the only pleasures completely true and pure. Comparison of pleasure and pain with neutrality. Prevalent illusions | 86 |
| Most men know nothing of true and pure pleasure. Simile of the Kosmos — Absolute height and depth | 87 |
| Nourishment of the mind partakes more of real essence than nourishment of the body — Replenishment of the mind imparts fuller pleasure than replenishment of the body | 88 |
| Comparative worthlessness of the pleasures of Appetite and Ambition, when measured against those of Intelligence | 89 |
| The Just Man will be happy from his justice — He will look only to the good order of his own mind — He will stand aloof from public affairs, in cities as now constituted | 90 |
| Tenth Book — Censure of the poets is renewed — Mischiefs of imitation generally, as deceptive — Imitation from imitation | 91 |
| Censure of Homer — He is falsely extolled as educator of the Hellenic world. He and other poets only deceive their hearers | 92 |
| The poet chiefly appeals to emotions — Mischiefs of such eloquent appeals, as disturbing the rational government of the mind | ib. |
| Ancient quarrel between philosophy and poetry — Plato fights for philosophy, though his feelings are strongly enlisted for poetry | 93 |
| Immortality of the soul affirmed and sustained by argument — Total number of souls always the same | ib. |
| Recapitulation — The Just Man will be happy, both from his justice and from its consequences, both here and hereafter | 94 |
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| CHAPTER XXXVI. |
| REPUBLIC — REMARKS ON ITS MAIN THESIS. |
| Summary of the preceding chapter | 95 |
| Title of the Republic, of ancient date, but only a partial indication of its contents | 96 |
| Parallelism between the Commonwealth and the Individual | 96 |
| Each of them a whole, composed of parts distinct in function and unequal in merit | 97 |
| End proposed by Plato. Happiness of the Commonwealth. Happiness of the individual. Conditions of happiness | 98 |
| Peculiar view of Justice taken by Plato | 99 |
| Pleadings of Glaukon and Adeimantus | ib. |
| The arguments which they enforce were not invented by the Sophists, but were the received views anterior to Plato | 100 |
| Argument of Sokrates to refute them. Sentiments in which it originates. Panegyric on Justice | 101 |
| Different senses of justice — wider and narrower sense | 102 |
| Plato’s sense of the word Justice or Virtue — self-regarding | 104 |
| He represents the motives to it, as arising from the internal happiness of the just agents | 105 |
| His theory departs more widely from the truth than that which he opposes. Argument of Adeimantus discussed | 106 |
| A Reciprocity of rights and duties between men in social life — different feelings towards one and towards the other | 109 |
| Plato’s own theory, respecting the genesis of society, is based on reciprocity | 111 |
| Antithesis and correlation of obligation and right. Necessity of keeping the two ideas together, as the basis of any theory respecting society | 112 |
| Characteristic feature of the Platonic Commonwealth — specialization of services to that function for which each man is fit — will not apply to one individual separately | 114 |
| Plato has not made good his refutation — the thesis which he impugns is true | 116 |
| Statement of the real issue between him and his opponents | 117 |
| He himself misrepresents this issue — he describes his opponents as enemies of justice | ib. |
| Farther arguments of Plato in support of his thesis. Comparison of three different characters of men | 118 |
| His arguments do not go to the point which he professes to aim at | 120 |
| Exaggerated parallelism between the Commonwealth and the individual man | 121 |
| Second Argument of Plato to prove the happiness of the just man — He now recalls his previous concession, and assumes that the just man will receive just treatment and esteem from others | ib. |
| Dependence of the happiness of the individual on the society in which he is placed | 123 |
| Inconsistency of affirming general positions respecting the happiness of the just man, in all societies without distinction | 124 |
| Qualified sense in which only this can be done | 125 |
| Question — Whether the just man is orthodox or dissenter in his society? — important in discussing whether he is happy | 126 |
| Comparison of the position of Sokrates at Athens, with that of his accusers | ib. |
| Imperfect ethical basis on which Plato has conducted the discussion in the Republic | 127 |
| Plato in Republic is preacher, inculcating useful beliefs — not philosopher, establishing scientific theory. State of Just and Unjust Man in the Platonic Commonwealth | 129 |
| Comparative happiness of the two in actual communities. Plato is dissatisfied with it — This is his motive for recasting society on his own principles | 130 |
| Confusion between the preacher and the philosopher in the Platonic Republic | 131 |
| Remarks on the contrast between ethical theory and ethical precepts | ib. |
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| CHAPTER XXXVII. |
| REPUBLIC — REMARKS ON THE PLATONIC COMMONWEALTH. |
| Double purpose of the Platonic Republic — ethical and political | 133 |
| Plato recognises the generating principle of human society — reciprocity of need and service. Particular direction which he gives to this principle | 133 |
| The four cardinal virtues are assumed as constituting the whole of Good or Virtue, where each of these virtues resides | 134 |
| First mention of these, as an exhaustive classification, in ethical theory. Plato effaces the distinction between Temperance and Justice | 135 |
| All the four are here assumed as certain and determinate, though in former dialogues they appear indeterminate and full of unsolved difficulties | 137 |
| Difficulties left unsolved, but overleaped by Plato | 138 |
| Ethical and political theory combined by Plato, treated apart by Aristotle | ib. |
| Platonic Commonwealth — only an outline — partially filled up | 139 |
| Absolute rule of a few philosophers — Careful and peculiar training of the Guardians | ib. |
| Comparison of Plato with Xenophon — Cyropædia — Œconomicus | 141 |
| Both of them combine polity with education — temporal with spiritual | 142 |
| Differences between them — Character of Cyrus | ib. |
| Xenophontic genius for command — Practical training — Sokratic principles applied in Persian training | 144 |
| Plato does not build upon an individual hero. Platonic training compared with Xenophontic | 146 |
| Platonic type of character compared with Xenophontic, is like the Athenian compared with the Spartan | 147 |
| Professional soldiers are the proper modern standard of comparison with the regulations of Plato and Xenophon | 148 |
| Music and Gymnastic — multifarious and varied effects of music | 149 |
| Great influence of the poets and their works on education | ib. |
| Plato’s idea of the purpose which poetry and music ought to serve in education | 151 |
| He declares war against most of the traditional and consecrated poetry, as mischievous | ib. |
| Strict limits imposed by Plato on poets | 153 |
| His view of the purposes of fiction — little distinction between fiction and truth. His censures upon Homer and the tragedians | 154 |
| Type of character prescribed by Plato, to which all poets must conform, in tales about Gods and Heroes | 155 |
| Position of Plato as an innovator on the received faith and traditions. Fictions indispensable to the Platonic Commonwealth | 156 |
| Difficulty of procuring first admission for fictions. Ease with which they perpetuate themselves after having been once admitted | 158 |
| Views entertained by Kritias and others, that the religious doctrines generally believed had originated with law-givers, for useful purposes | 159 |
| Main points of dissent between Plato and his countrymen, in respect to religious doctrine | 161 |
| Theology of Plato compared with that of Epikurus — Neither of them satisfied the exigencies of a believing religious mind of that day | ib. |
| Plato conceives the Gods according to the exigencies of his own mind — complete discord with those of the popular mind | 163 |
| Repugnance of ordinary Athenians in regard to the criticism of Sokrates on the religious legends | 165 |
| Aristophanes connects the idea of immorality with the freethinkers and their wicked misinterpretations | ib. |
| Heresies ascribed to Sokrates by his own friends — Unpopularity of his name from this circumstance | 168 |
| Restrictions imposed by Plato upon musical modes and reciters | ib. |
| All these restrictions intended for the emotional training of the Guardians | 169 |
| Regulations for the life of the Guardians, especially the prohibition of separate property and family | ib. |
| Purpose of Plato in these regulations | ib. |
| Common life, education, drill, collective life, and duties, for Guardians of both sexes. Views of Plato respecting the female character and aptitudes | 171 |
| His arguments against the ordinary doctrine | 172 |
| Opponents appealed to nature as an authority against Plato. He invokes Nature on his own side against them | 173 |
| Collective family relations and denominations among the Guardians | 174 |
| Restrictions upon sexual intercourse — Purposes of such restrictions | 175 |
| Regulations about marriages and family | 176 |
| Procreative powers of individual Guardians required to be held at the disposal of the rulers, for purity of breed | 177 |
| Purpose to create an intimate and equal sympathy among all the Guardians, but to prevent exclusive sympathy of particular members | 178 |
| Platonic scheme — partial communism | 179 |
| Soldiership as a separate profession has acquired greater development in modern times | 180 |
| Spartan institutions — great impression which they produced upon speculative Greek minds | 181 |
| Plans of these speculative minds compared with Spartan — Different types of character contemplated | 182 |
| Plato carries abstraction farther than Xenophon or Aristotle | 183 |
| Anxiety shown by Plato for the good treatment of the Demos, greater than that shown by Xenophon and Aristotle | ib. |
| In Aristotle’s theory, the Demos are not considered as members of the Commonwealth, but as adjuncts | 184 |
| Objection urged by Aristotle against the Platonic Republic, that it will be two cities. Spiritual pride of the Guardians, contempt for the Demos | ib. |
| Plato’s scheme fails, mainly because he provides no training for the Demos | 186 |
| Principle of Aristotle — That every citizen belongs to the city, not to himself — applied by Plato to women | 187 |
| Aristotle declares the Platonic Commonwealth impossible — In what sense this is true | 189 |
| The real impossibility of the Platonic Commonwealth, arises from the fact that discordant sentiments are already established | 191 |
| Plato has strong feelings of right and wrong about sexual intercourse, but referring to different objects | 192 |
| Different sentiment which would grow up in the Platonic Commonwealth respecting the sexual relations | 193 |
| What Nature prescribes in regard to the relations of the two sexes — Direct contradiction between Plato and Aristotle | 194 |
| Opinion of Plato respecting the capacities of women, and the training proper for women, are maintained in the Leges, as well as in the Republic. Ancient legends harmonising with this opinion | 195 |
| In a Commonwealth like the Platonic, the influence of Aphroditê would probably have been reduced to a minimum | 197 |
| Other purposes of Plato — limitation of number of Guardians — common to Aristotle also | 198 |
| Law of population expounded by Malthus — Three distinct checks to population — alternative open between preventive and positive | ib. |
| Plato and Aristotle saw the same law as Malthus, but arranged the facts under a different point of view | 202 |
| Regulations of Plato and Aristotle as to number of births and newborn children | ib. |
| Such regulations disapproved and forbidden by modern sentiment. Variability of ethical sentiment as to objects approved or disapproved | 203 |
| Plato and Aristotle required subordination of impulse to reason and duty — they applied this to the procreative impulse, as to others | 204 |
| Training of the few select philosophers to act as chiefs | 205 |
| Comprehensive curriculum for aspirants to philosophy — consummation by means of Dialectic | 206 |
| Valuable remarks on the effects of these preparatory studies | 207 |
| Differences between the Republic and other dialogues — no mention of reminiscence nor of the Elenchus | ib. |
| Different view taken by Plato in the Republic about Dialectic — and different place assigned to it | 208 |
| Contradiction with the spirit of other dialogues — Parmenidês, &c. | 209 |
| Contradiction with the character and declarations of Sokrates | 210 |
| The remarks here made upon the effect of Dialectic upon youth coincide with the accusation of Melêtus against Sokrates | 211 |
| Contrast between the real Sokrates, as a dissenter at Athens, and the Platonic Sokrates, framer and dictator of the Platonic Republic | ib. |
| Idea of Good — The Chiefs alone know what it is — If they did not they would be unfit for their functions | 212 |
| What is the Good? Plato does not know; but he requires the Chiefs to know it. Without this the Republic would be a failure | 213 |
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| CHAPTER XXXVIII. |
| TIMÆUS AND KRITIAS. |
| Persons and scheme of the Timæus and Kritias | 215 |
| The Timæus is the earliest ancient physical theory, which we possess in the words of its author | 216 |
| Position and character of the Pythagorean Timæus | ib. |
| Poetical imagination displayed by Plato. He pretends to nothing more than probability. Contrast with Sokrates, Isokrates, Xenophon | 217 |
| Fundamental distinction between Ens and Fientia | 219 |
| Postulates of Plato. The Demiurgus — The Eternal Ideas — Chaotic Materia or Fundamentum. The Kosmos is a living being and a God | 220 |
| The Demiurgus not a Creator — The Kosmos arises from his operating upon the random movements of Necessity. He cannot controul necessity — he only persuades | ib. |
| Meaning of Necessity in Plato | 221 |
| Process of demiurgic construction — The total Kosmos comes logically first, constructed on the model of the Αὐτοζῶον | 223 |
| Body of the Kosmos, perfectly spherical — its rotations | 225 |
| Soul of the Kosmos — its component ingredients — stretched from centre to circumference | ib. |
| Regular or measured Time — began with the Kosmos | 227 |
| Divine tenants of the Kosmos. Primary and Visible Gods — Stars and Heavenly Bodies | 229 |
| Secondary and generated Gods — Plato’s dictum respecting them. His acquiescence in tradition | 230 |
| Remarks on Plato’s Canon of Belief | 231 |
| Address and order of the Demiurgus to the generated Gods | 233 |
| Preparations for the construction of man. Conjunction of three souls and one body | ib. |
| Proceedings of the generated Gods — they fabricate the cranium, as miniature of the Kosmos, with the rational soul rotating within it | 235 |
| The cranium is mounted on a tall body — six varieties of motion — organs of sense. Vision — Light | 236 |
| Principal advantages of sight and hearing. Observations of the rotation of the Kosmos | 237 |
| The Kosmos is product of joint action of Reason and Necessity. The four visible and tangible elements are not primitive | 238 |
| Forms or Ideas and Materia Prima — Forms of the Elements — Place, or Receptivity | ib. |
| Primordial Chaos — Effect of intervention by the Demiurgus | 240 |
| Geometrical theory of the elements — fundamental triangles — regular solids | ib. |
| Varieties of each element | 242 |
| Construction of man imposed by the Demiurgus upon the secondary Gods. Triple Soul. Distribution thereof in the body | 243 |
| Functions of the heart and lungs. Thoracic soul | 245 |
| Abdominal Soul — difficulty of controuling it — functions of the liver | ib. |
| The liver is made the seat of the prophetic agency. Function of the spleen | 246 |
| Length of the intestinal canal, in order that food might not be frequently needed | 247 |
| Bone — Flesh — Marrow | ib. |
| Nails — Mouth — Teeth. Plants produced for nutrition of man | 248 |
| General view of Diseases and their Causes | 249 |
| Diseases of mind — wickedness is a disease — no man is voluntarily wicked | ib. |
| Badness of mind arises from body | 250 |
| Preservative and healing agencies against disease — well-regulated exercise, of mind and body proportionally | 250 |
| Treatment proper for mind alone, apart from body — supremacy of the rational soul must be cultivated | 251 |
| We must study and understand the rotations of the Kosmos — this is the way to amend the rotations of the rational soul | 252 |
| Construction of women, birds, quadrupeds, fishes, &c., all from the degradation of primitive man | ib. |
| Large range of topics introduced in the Timæus | 254 |
| The Demiurgus of the Platonic Timæus — how conceived by other philosophers of the same century | ib. |
| Adopted and welcomed by the Alexandrine Jews, as a parallel to the Mosaic Genesis | 256 |
| Physiology of the Platonic Timæus — subordinate to Plato’s views of ethical teleology. Triple soul — each soul at once material and mental | 257 |
| Triplicity of the soul — espoused afterwards by Galen | 258 |
| Admiration of Galen for Plato — his agreement with Plato, and his dissension from Plato — his improved physiology | 259 |
| Physiology and Pathology of Plato — compared with that of Aristotle and the Hippokratic treatises | 260 |
| Contrast between the admiration of Plato for the constructors of the Kosmos, and the defective results which he describes | 262 |
| Degeneration of the real tenants of Earth from their primitive type | 263 |
| Close of the Timæus. Plato turns away from the shameful results, and reverts to the glorification of the primitive types | 264 |
| Kritias: a fragment | 265 |
| Proœmium to Timæus. Intended Tetralogy for the Republic. The Kritias was third piece in that Tetralogy | ib. |
| Subject of the Kritias. Solon and the Egyptian priests. Citizens of Platonic Republic are identified with ancient Athenians | 266 |
| Plato professes that what he is about to recount is matter of history, recorded by Egyptian priests | 268 |
| Description of the vast island of Atlantis and its powerful kings | ib. |
| Corruption and wickedness of the Atlantid people | 269 |
| Conjectures as to what the Platonic Kritias would have been — an ethical epic in prose | ib. |
| Plato represents the epic Kritias as matter of recorded history | 270 |
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| CHAPTER XXXIX. |
| LEGES AND EPINOMIS. |
| Leges, the longest of Plato’s works — Persons of the dialogue | 272 |
| Abandonment of Plato’s philosophical projects prior to the Leges | 273 |
| Untoward circumstances of Plato’s later life — His altered tone in regard to philosophy | ib. |
| General comparison of Leges with Plato’s earlier works | 275 |
| Scene of the Leges, not in Athens, but in Krete. Persons Kretan and Spartan, comparatively illiterate | 277 |
| Gymnastic training, military drill, and public mess, in Krete and Sparta | 279 |
| Difference between Leges and Republic, illustrated by reference to the Politikus | 280 |
| Large proportion of preliminary discussions and didactic exhortation in the Leges | 281 |
| Scope of the discussion laid down by the Athenian speaker — The Spartan institutions are framed only for war — This is narrow and erroneous | 282 |
| Principles on which the institutions of a state ought to be defended — You must show that its ethical purpose and working is good | 284 |
| Religious and ethical character postulated by Plato for a community | ib. |
| Endurance of pain enforced as a part of the public discipline at Sparta | 285 |
| Why are not the citizens tested in like manner, in regard to resistance against the seductions of pleasure? | ib. |
| Drunkenness forbidden at Sparta, and blamed by the Spartan converser. The Athenian proceeds to inquire how far such unqualified prohibition is justifiable | 286 |
| Description of Sokrates in the Symposion — his self-command under abundant potations | 287 |
| Sokrates — an ideal of self-command, both as to pain and as to pleasure | 288 |
| Trials for testing the self-controul of the citizen, under the influence of wine. Dionysiac banquets, under a sober president | 289 |
| The gifts of Dionysus may, by precautions, be rendered useful — Desultory manner of Plato | ib. |
| Theory of ethical and æsthetical education — Training of the emotions of youth through the influence of the Muses, Apollo, and Dionysus. Choric practice and ceremonies | 290 |
| Music and dancing — imitation of the voice and movements of brave and virtuous men. Youth must be taught to take delight in this | 291 |
| Bad musical exhibitions and poetry forbidden by the lawgiver. Songs and dances must be consecrated by public authority. Prizes at the musical festivals to be awarded by select judges | 292 |
| The Spartan and Kretan agree with the Athenian, that poets must be kept under a strict censorship. But they do not agree as to what the poets are required to conform to | ib. |
| Ethical creed laid down by the Athenian — Poets required to conform to it | 294 |
| The Spartan and Kretan do not agree with him | 296 |
| Chorus of Elders are required to set an example in keeping up the purity of the music prescribed | 297 |
| The Elders require the stimulus of wine, in order to go through the choric duties with spirit | ib. |
| Peculiar views of Plato about intoxication | 298 |
| General ethical doctrine held by Plato in Leges | 299 |
| Pleasure — Good — Happiness — What is the relation between them? | ib. |
| Comparison of the doctrine laid down in Leges | 300 |
| Doctrine in Leges about Pleasure and Good — approximates more nearly to the Protagoras than to Gorgias and Philêbus | 301 |
| Comparison of Leges with Republic and Gorgias | 302 |
| Plato here mistrusts the goodness of his own proof. He falls back upon useful fiction | 303 |
| Deliberate ethical fiction employed as means of governing | 304 |
| Importance of music and chorus as an engine of teaching for Plato. Views of Xenophon and Aristotle compared | 305 |
| Historical retrospect as to the growth of cities — Frequent destruction of established communities, with only a small remnant left | 307 |
| Historical or legendary retrospect — The Trojan war — The return of the Herakleids | 308 |
| Difficulties of government — Conflicts about command — Seven distinct titles to command exist among mankind, all equally natural, and liable to conflict | 309 |
| Imprudence of founding government upon any one of these titles separately — Governments of Argos and Messênê ruined by the single principle — Sparta avoided it | 310 |
| Plato casts Hellenic legend into accordance with his own political theories | 311 |
| Persia and Athens compared — Excess of despotism. Excess of liberty | 312 |
| Cyrus and Darius — Bad training of sons of kings | ib. |
| Changes for the worse in government of Athens, after the Persian invasion of Greece | 313 |
| This change began in music, and the poets introduced new modes of composition — they appealed to the sentiment of the people, and corrupted them | 314 |
| Danger of changes in the national music — declared by Damon, the musical teacher | 315 |
| Plato’s aversion to the tragic and comic poetry at Athens | 316 |
| This aversion peculiar to himself, not shared either by oligarchical politicians, or by other philosophers | 317 |
| Doctrines of Plato in this prefatory matter | 318 |
| Compared with those of the Republic and of the Xenophontic Cyropædia | 319 |
| Constructive scheme — Plato’s new point of view | 320 |
| New Colony to be founded in Krete — its general conditions | ib. |
| The Athenian declares that he will not merely promulgate peremptory laws, but will recommend them to the citizens by prologues or hortatory discourses | 321 |
| General character of these prologues — didactic or rhetorical homilies | 322 |
| Great value set by Plato himself upon these prologues. They are to serve as type for all poets. No one is allowed to contradict them | 323 |
| Contrast of Leges with Gorgias and Phædrus | 324 |
| Regulations for the new colony — About religious worship, the oracles of Delphi and Dodona are to be consulted | 325 |
| Perpetuity of number of citizens, and of lots of land, one to each, inalienable and indivisible | 326 |
| Plato reasserts his adherence to the principle of the Republic, though the repugnance of others hinders him from realising it | 327 |
| Regulations about land, successions, marriages, &c. The number of citizens must not be allowed to increase | 328 |
| Position of the city and akropolis — Distribution of the territory and citizens into twelve equal sections or tribes | 329 |
| Movable property — Inequality therein reluctantly allowed, as far as four to one, but no farther | 330 |
| Census of the citizens — four classes, with graduated scale of property. No citizen to possess gold or silver. No loans or interest. No debts enforced by law | 331 |
| Board of thirty-seven Nomophylakes — general supervisors of the laws and their execution — how elected | 332 |
| Military commanders — General council of 360 — complicated mode of election | ib. |
| Character of the electoral scheme — Plato’s views about wealth — he caters partly for the oligarchical sentiment, partly for the democratical | 333 |
| Meetings of council — other magistrates — Agoranomi — Astynomi, &c. | 335 |
| Defence of the territory — rural police — Agronomi, &c. | ib. |
| Comparison with the Lacedæmonian Kryptia | 336 |
| Priests — Exêgêtæ — Property belonging to temples | 337 |
| Superintendence of Music and Gymnastic. Educational function | ib. |
| Grave duties of the Minister of Education — precautions in electing him | 338 |
|
Judicial duties | 339 |
| Private Causes — how tried | ib. |
| Public Causes must be tried directly by the citizens — strong feeling among Greeks about this | 340 |
| Plato’s way of meeting this feeling — intermediate inquiry and report by a special Commissioner | 340 |
| What laws the magistrates are to enforce — Many details must be left to the Nomophylakes | 341 |
| Marriage-Laws — Rich husbands to choose poor wives — No dowries — costly marriage festivals are forbidden | 342 |
| Laws about slavery. Slaves to be well fed, and never treated with cruelty or insolence. The master must not converse with them | ib. |
| Circular form for the city — Temples in the centre — No walls round it | 344 |
| Mode of life prescribed to new-married couples They are to take the best care about good procreation for the city | ib. |
| Board of superintending matrons | 345 |
| Age fixed for marriage. During the first ten years the couple are under obligation to procreate for the city — Restrictions during these ten years | ib. |
| How infants are to be brought up — Nurses — Perpetual regulated movements useful for toning down violent emotions | 346 |
| Choric and orchestic movements, their effect in discharging strong emotions | 347 |
| Training of boys and girls | 348 |
| Musical and literary teaching for youth — Poetry, songs, music, dances, must all be fixed by authority, and never changed — Mischief done by poets aiming to please | 349 |
| Boys and girls to learn letters and the lyre, from ten to thirteen years of age. Masters will teach the laws and homilies of the lawgiver, and licensed extracts from the poets | 350 |
| The teaching is to be simple, and common to both sexes | 351 |
| Rudiments of arithmetic and geometry to be taught | 352 |
| Astronomy must be taught, in order that the citizens may not assert libellous falsehoods respecting the heavenly bodies | 354 |
| Hunting — how far permitted or advised | 355 |
| Large general sense which Plato gives to the word hunting | 356 |
| Number of religious sacrifices to be determined by lawgiver | 357 |
| Military muster of the whole citizen population once in each month — men, women, and children | 358 |
| Gymnastic training must have reference to war, not to athletic prizes | 358 |
| Regulation of sexual intercourse. Syssitia or public mess | 359 |
| Regulations about landed property — Boundaries — Limited power of fining by magistrates | 360 |
| Regulations about artisans — Distribution of the annual landed produce | 361 |
| Admission of resident Metics — conditions attached | 362 |
| Offences and penal judicature — Procedure of the Dikasts | ib. |
| Sacrilege, the gravest of all crimes. High Treason | 363 |
| Theft punished by pœna dupli. General exhortation founded by Plato upon this enactment | 364 |
| All unjust men are unjust involuntarily. — No such thing as voluntary injustice. Injustice depends upon the temper of the agent — Distinction between damage and injury | 365 |
| Damage may be voluntary or involuntary — Injustice is shown often by conferring corrupt profit upon another — Purpose of punishment, to heal the distemper of the criminal | ib. |
| Three distinct causes of misguided proceedings. 1. Painful stimulus. 2. Pleasurable stimulus. 3. Ignorance | 366 |
| The unjust man is under the influence either of the first or second of these causes, without controul of Reason. If he acts under controul of Reason, though the Reason be bad, he is not unjust | 367 |
| Reasoning of Plato to save his doctrine — That no man commits injustice voluntarily | ib. |
| Peculiar definition of injustice. A man may do great voluntary hurt to others, and yet not be unjust, provided he does it under the influence of Reason, and not of Appetite | 368 |
| Plato’s purpose in the Laws is to prevent or remedy not only injustice but misconduct | 369 |
| Varieties of homicide — modes of dealing with them penally | 370 |
| Homicide involuntary — Homicide under provocation | ib. |
| Homicide voluntary | 371 |
| Homicide between kinsmen | 372 |
| Homicide justifiable — in what cases | ib. |
| Infliction of wounds | ib. |
| Infliction of blows | 373 |
| Plato has borrowed much from Attic procedure, especially in regard to Homicide — Peculiar view of Homicide at Athens, as to procedure | 374 |
| Impiety or outrage offered to divine things or places | 375 |
| All impiety arises from one or other of three heresies. 1. No belief in the Gods. 2. Belief that the Gods interfere very little. 3. Belief that they may be appeased by prayer and sacrifice | 376 |
| Punishment for these three heretical beliefs, with or without overt act | ib. |
| Heretic, whose conduct has been virtuous and faultless, to be imprisoned for five years, perhaps more | ib. |
| Heretic with bad conduct — punishment to be inflicted | 377 |
| No private worship or religious rites allowed. Every citizen must worship at the public temples | ib. |
| Uncertain and mischievous action of the religious sentiment upon individuals, if not controuled by public authority | 378 |
| Intolerant spirit of Plato’s legislation respecting uniformity of belief | 379 |
| The persons denounced by Plato as heretics, and punished as such, would have included a majority of the Grecian world | 381 |
| Proëm or prefatory discourse of Plato, for these severe laws against heretics | 383 |
| The third variety of heresy is declared to be the worst — the belief in Gods persuadable by prayer and sacrifice | 384 |
| Heretics censured by Plato — Sokrates censured before the Athenian Dikasts | 385 |
| Kosmological and Kosmogonical theory announced in Leges | 386 |
| Soul — older, more powerful in the universe than Body. Different souls are at work in the universe — the good soul and the bad soul | ib. |
| Plato’s argument is unsatisfactory and inconsistent | 388 |
| Reverence of Plato for uniform circular rotation | 389 |
| Argument of Plato to confute the second class of heretics | ib. |
| Contrary doctrine of Plato in Republic | 390 |
| Argument of Plato to refute the third class of heretics | 391 |
| General belief in Greece about the efficacy of prayer and sacrifice to appease the Gods | 392 |
| Incongruities of Plato’s own doctrine | 393 |
| Both Herodotus and Sokrates dissented from Plato’s doctrine | 394 |
| Great opposition which Plato’s doctrine would have encountered in Greece | 395 |
| Local infallibility was claimed as a rule in each community, though rarely enforced with severity: Plato both claims it more emphatically, and enforces it more rigorously | 396 |
| Farther civil and political regulations for the Magnetic community. No evidence that Plato had studied the working of different institutions in practice | 397 |
| Modes of acquiring property — legitimate and illegitimate | ib. |
| Plato’s general regulations leave little room for disputes about ownership | 398 |
| Plato’s principles of legislation, not consistent — comparison of them with the Attic law about Eranoi | 399 |
| Regulations about slaves, and about freedmen | 400 |
| Provisions in case a slave is sold, having a distemper upon him | 401 |
| Retailers. Strict regulations about them. No citizen can be a retailer | ib. |
| Frauds committed by sellers — severe punishments on them | 402 |
| Comparison with the lighter punishment inflicted by Attic law | 403 |
| Regulations about Orphans and Guardians: also about Testamentary powers | 404 |
| Plato’s general coincidence with Attic law and its sentiment | 406 |
| Tutelage of Orphans — Disagreement of Married Couples — Divorce | ib. |
| Neglect of Parents | 407 |
| Poison — Magic — Incantations — Severe punishment | ib. |
| Punishment is inflicted with a view to future prevention or amendment | 408 |
| Penalty for abusive words — for libellous comedy. Mendicity forbidden | 409 |
| Regulations about witnesses on judicial trials | ib. |
| Censure of forensic eloquence, and the teachers of it. Penalties against contentious litigation | 410 |
| Many of Plato’s laws are discharges of ethical antipathy. The antipathy of Melêtus against Sokrates was of the same character | 411 |
| Penalty for abuse of public trust — wrongful appropriation of public money — evasion of military service | 412 |
| Oaths. Dikasts, Judges, Electors, are to be sworn: but no parties to a suit, or interested witnesses, can be sworn | 413 |
| Regulations about admission of strangers, and foreign travel of citizens | 414 |
| Suretyship — Length of prescription for ownership, &c. | 415 |
| Judicial trial — three stages. 1. Arbitrators. 2. Tribe-Dikasteries. 3. Select Dikastery | ib. |
| Funerals — proceedings prescribed — expense limited | ib. |
| Conservative organ to keep up the original scheme of the lawgiver. Nocturnal Council for this purpose — how constituted | ib. |
| This Council must keep steadily in view the one great end of the city — Mistakes made by existing cities about the right end | 417 |
| The one end of the city is the virtue of its citizens — that property which is common to the four varieties of Virtue — Reason, Courage, Temperance, Justice | ib. |
| The Nocturnal Council must comprehend this unity of Virtue, explain it to others, and watch that it be carried out in detail | 418 |
| They must also adopt, explain, and enforce upon the citizens, an orthodox religious creed. Fundamental dogmas of such creed | 419 |
| Leges close, without describing the education proper for the Nocturnal Counsellors. Epinomis supplying this defect | 420 |
| The Athenian declares his plan of education — Arithmetic, Geometry, Astronomy | ib. |
| Theological view of Astronomy — Divine Kosmos — Soul more ancient and more sovereign than Body | 421 |
| Improving effects of the study of Astronomy in this spirit | 422 |
| Study of arithmetic and geometry: varieties of proportion | 423 |
| When the general forms of things have thus been learnt, particular individuals in nature must be brought under them | ib. |
| Question as to education of the Nocturnal Council is answered in the Epinomis | 424 |
| Problem which the Nocturnal Council are required to solve, What is the common property of Prudence, Courage, Temperance, Justice, by reason of which each is called Virtue? | 425 |
| The only common property is that all of them are essential to the maintenance of society, and tend to promote human security and happiness | ib. |
| Tendency of the four opposite qualities to lessen human happiness | 426 |
| A certain measure of all the four virtues is required. In judging of particular acts instigated by each, there is always a tacit reference to the hurt or benefit in the special case | ib. |
| Plato places these four virtues in the highest scale of Expetenda or Bona, on the ground that all the other Bona are sure to flow from them | 428 |
| In thus directing the attention of the Council to the common property of the four virtues, Plato enforces upon them the necessity of looking to the security and happiness of their community as the paramount end | 429 |
| But he enjoins also other objectionable ends | ib. |
| Intolerance of Plato — Comparison of the Platonic community with Athens | ib. |