SOURCES OF EXAMPLES
1. Bertrand Russell, On Education, ch. XIX, p. 169 (George Allen and Unwin, 1960).
2. Dr. Johnson, "Review of a Free Inquiry", in Johnson: Prose and Poetry, ed. Mona Wilson, p. 366 (Rupert Hart- Davis, 1969).
3. Government of Jamaica, Economic and Social Survey Jamaica 1981, p. 22.20 (National Planning Agency, 1982).
4. Paulo Friere, Education for Critical Consciousness, p. 122-3 (Seabury Press, 1974).
5. Frederick A. Cook, Larry D. Brown and Jack E. Oliver, "The Southern Appalachians and the Growth of Continents" Scientific American vol. 243, no. 4, October 1980, p. 124.
6. Ernest Gellner, The devil in modern philosophy, ch. 2, p. 31 (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1974).
7. K.R. Popper, The Poverty of Historicism, Preface, pp. v- vi (Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1957).
8. J.L. Mackie, Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong, ch.9.3, p. 217 (Penguin, 1977).
9. Douglas J. Simpson & Michael J.B. Jackson, The Teacher as Philosopher, ch. 1, p. 3 (Methuen, Toronto, 1984).
10. Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Phillip II, part I, ch. V, pp. 288-9 (Fontana, 1975).
11. John Donne, Divine Meditations 10, in John Donne, The Complete English Poems, ed. A.J. Smith, p. 313 (Penguin, 1971).
12. M.K. Bacchus, Education for Development or Underdevelopment?, ch. 8, p. 277 (Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 1980).
13. Niccolo Machiavelli, The Prince, ch. XX, p. 81 (Random House, 1950).
14. Thomas D. Nicholson, "The Enigma of Pluto" Natural History, vol. LXXVI, March 1967, pp. 48-9. (I am endebted to Copi's Introduction to Logic for this argument.)
15. G.A. Cohen, "Capitalism, Freedom, and the Proletariat" in The Idea of Freedom, ed. Alan Ryan, p. 21 (Oxford University Press, 1979).
16. Niccolo Machiavelli, The Discourses on the First Ten Books of Titus Livius, Book 1, ch. 11, p. 147 (Random House, 1950).
17. M.L. Pasteur, Memoir on the Organised Corpusles which Exist in the Atmosphere in Readings in the Literature of Science, eds. William C. and Margaret Dampier, p. 217 (Harper, 1959).
18. Edmund Leach, A Runaway World?, ch. 5, p. 75 (B.B.C., 1968).
19 David Hume, Enquiries concerning the Principles of Morals, Section IV, ed. L.A. Selby-Bigge, p. 205 (Clarendon Press, 1961).
20. Euclid, Elements, Book 1, prop. 6 in The Thirteen Books of Euclid's Elements trans. Sir Thomas L. Heath, vol. 1, pp. 255-6 (Dover, 1956).
21. A. Tversky & D. Kahneman, "Judgment under uncertainty: heuristics and biases" in Thinking: Readings in Cognitive Science, eds. P.N. Johnson-Laird & P.C. Wason, pp. 332-333 (Cambridge University Press, 1977).
22. Jacques Barzun, The House of Intellect, ch. IV, p. 112 (Harper, 1961).
23. Isabelle Deble, The school education of girls, part 2, p. 56 (UNESCO, 1980).
24. Socialist Standard, vol. 76, no. 907, March 1980, p. 48.
25. Janet Radcliffe Richards, The Sceptical Feminist, ch. 4, pp. 129-30 (Penguin, 1982).
26. Jonathan Glover, What Sort of People Should There Be?, ch. 10, p. 135 (Penguin, 1984).
27. Michael Scriven Reasoning, ch. 6, p. 162 (McGraw-Hill, 1976).
28. Borrowed from P.T. Geach, Reason and Argument, ch. 7, p. 33 (Blackwell, 1979).
29. R.N. Murray and G.L. Gbedemah, Foundations of Education in the Caribbean, ch. III, p. 55 (Hodder and Stoughton, 1983).
30. F.P. Ramsey, The Foundations of Mathematics, ch. I, p. 31 (Littlefield, Adams & Co., 1960). I am again endebted to Copi, Introduction to Logic for this argument.
31. The I.E.C. Wine society, offer of 1982 claret.
32. John Thelwall, Rights of Nature I, pp. 21, 24, quoted in E.P. Thompson The Making of the English Working Class, ch. 5, p. 203, (Penguin, 1968).
33. John Dewey, Democracy and Education, ch. 1, p. 4-5 (Free Press, 1966).
34. The Jerusalem Bible, Romans ch. 7, v. 20. (Geoffrey Chapman, 1971).
35. Eugene P. Odum, Ecology, 2nd ed., ch. 6, p. 159 (Holt Rinehart Winston, 1975).
36. Epictetus, Enchiridion, 44, translation adapted from that given in Copi Introduction to Logic, p. 44.
37. J.L. Mackie, "Causes and Conditions" American Philosophical Quarterly, vol. 2, no. 4, Oct. 1965, p. 5.
38. J.A. Akinpelu, An Introduction to Philosophy of Education, ch. 2, p. 69 (Macmillan, 1981).
39. Edward J. Power, Philosophy of Education, ch. 8, p. 261 (Prentice Hall, 1982).
40. Milan Kundera, The Unbearable Lightness of Being, p. 4 (trans. Michael Henry Heim) (Faber & Faber, 1984).
41. The Bible (Authorized Version), Ecclesiastes, ch. 11, v. 1.
42. Georges Leygues, quoted in Norman Stone Europe Transformed, 1879-1919 (Fontana, 1983), p. 389.
43. A. Meyer, letter in Newsweek, April 23, 1984, p. 6.
44. George Orwell, "Freedom of the Park", p. 40, in The Collected Essays, Journalism, and Letters of George Orwell, vol. IV (eds. Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus) (Secker & Warburg, 1968).
45. Richard Rorty, "Cartesian Epistemology and Changes in Ontology," p. 285, in J.E. Smith Contemporary American Philosophy, 2nd series (George Allen & Unwin, 1970), pp. 273-292.
46. David Hume, Enquiries concerning the Principles of Morals, Section II, ed. L.A. Selby-Bigge, p. 180 (Clarendon Press, 1961).
47. Alan Brown, Modern Political Philosophy, ch. 1, p. 18 (Penguin, 1986).
48. Bertrand Russell, Marriage and Morals, pp. 55-56 (Allen & Unwin, 1985 [originally 1929]).
49. Adapted from John Kleinig, Philosophical Issues in Education, ch. 13, p. 167-8 (Croom Helm, 1982).
50. Michael Rutter, Maternal Deprivation Reassessed, 2nd ed., pp. 109-110 (Penguin, 1981).
RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING
A. General
There are lots of books about informal logic; I shall only mention a few. For the structure of arguments, Michael Scriven Reasoning (McGraw-Hill, 1976) is particularly useful. Anthony Flew Thinking about Thinking (Fontana, 1975) is an amusing survey of basic logical issues. Similar ground, with a few other issues, and a certain amount of formalism, is covered succinctly in P.T. Geach Reason and Argument (Blackwell, 1979). A much more leisurely and more traditional survey that gets into elementary formal logic is Irving M. Copi Introduction to Logic (several editions; Macmillan) it has plenty of examples and exercises.
In recent years there have been several books dealing with informal logic in ways which are similar to that adopted here. Among others I might mention: R.H. Johnson and J.A. Blair Logical Self-Defense (McGraw-Hill Ryerson, Toronto, 1983); John Eric Nolt Informal Logic: Possible Worlds and Imagination (McGraw-Hill, 1984); and Gerald M. Nosich Reasons and Arguments (Wadsworth, 1982). A very recent contribution is to be found in Alec Fisher The Logic of Real Arguments (Cambridge University Press, 1988).
Formal logic is a vast subject that may not be very rewarding for most of you. A useful, up-to-date text that discusses the workings of language in some detail is Wilfrid Hodges Logic (Penguin, 1977).
I have tried to suggest that logical criticism is of importance for a wider range of issues. Similar themes may be found in Trevor Pateman Language, Truth & Politics (Jean Stroud, PO Box 12, Lewes, East Sussex; 2nd edition, 1980), and in a paper by Michael Naish, Anthony Hartnett and Douglas Finlayson, "Ideological documents in education: some suggestions towards a definition" in Theory and the Practice of Education vol. 2 edited by Anthony Hartnett and Michael Naish (Heinemann, 1978).
B. Particular
In Section 4 I offer some ideas about conditional statements that are inspired by J.L. Mackie's account of conditionals; it is to be found in his rather difficult Truth, Probability, and Paradox ch. 3 (Oxford, 1973).
For a clear survey of the problems involved in uncovering unstated assumptions mentioned in Section 6, see Robert H. Ennis, "Identifying Implicit Assumptions" Synthese, vol. 51, pp. 61-86, 1982.
Section 8 looks very briefly at non-deductive arguments; an excellent account of what makes a good or a bad non-deductive argument in the sciences is given in Ronald N. Giere Understanding Scientific Reasoning (Holt, Reinhart and Winston, 1979).
Section 10 skates around the notion of truth; for the view I am using see J.L. Mackie, Truth, Probability, and Paradox ch.2 (Oxford, 1973). The importance of risk-taking for informativeness, and of falsification and our responses to it for the growth of knowledge, are among the many generally accepted insights due largely to Karl Popper. A short and simple account of his thought that should connect with several of the points I have nade is to be found in Bryan Magee Popper (Fontana, 1973). Some discussion related to eduational interests can be found in my Do Teachers Care about Truth? Epistemological Issues for Education (Allen & Unwin, 1987).
In Section 11 I use some ideas about the concept of need that I first set out in "O Reason not the Need," Education for Development vol. 6 no. 1, 1980. A more extensive discussion of ellipsis can be found in my paper "Ellipsis: history and prospects" Informal Logic, vol. 8, pp. 93-103, 1986. The utility of the notion is argued for in "Ellipsis and Ideology" in D.N. Perkins et al. (eds.) Thinking: The Second International Conference, pp. 103-119 (L. Erlbaum, 1987).
With Section 12 compare Hodges op. cit. section 33. I discuss a few other examples of the sort of emptiness decried in Section 12 in "Hirst and 'Total Education'" in the CARSEA Journal vol. 5, pp. 1-5, 1980. Chapter 5 of Flew op. cit. is very good on the occasional utility and more frequent abuse of definitions.
Section 16 raises vast questions about our knowledge of the world and our beliefs about values. A very good introduction to the former is to be found in W.V. Quine and J.S. Ullian The Web of Belief (Random House, 1978). My view of values is based on Mackie's, as set out in J.L. Mackie Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong (Penguin, 1977). The notion of a reflective equilibrium is expounded in the very thorough A Theory of Justice by John Rawls (Oxford, 1973).
There are very many discussions of analysis both in general philosophy and in philosophy of education. The views in the appendix owe most to J.L. Mackie, Truth, Probability, and Paradox (Oxford, 1973) ch. 1, and to Keith Graham, J.L. Austin: A Critique of Ordinary Language Philosophy (Harvester, 1977) ch. II. Chapters III and IV of this same book discuss the notion of speech acts, the terminology for which was introduced by J.L. Austin. Rules of conversation came into philosophy with H.P. Grice; an accessible introduction to them, though it is very brief, can be found in Appendix 5 of Trevor Pateman op. cit. For arguments for the view that unified accounts of meaning are to be preferred, see Roger Wertheimer The Significance of Sense (Cornell, 1972) ch. 2.
The brief survey of fallacies in Appendix 2 owes a great deal to J.L. Mackie's article on "Fallacies" in the Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ed. Paul Edwards, (Macmillan Co. & the Free Press, 1967).
URL http://www.uwichill.edu.bb/bnccde/epb/sourcesreading.html
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